''
Gaius Iulius CaesarOfficial name after 42 BC,
Gaius Iulius Caesar Divus (Latin script: GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR) (in inscriptions IMP•C•IVLIVS•CAESAR•DIVVS), in English, "Imperator and God Gaius Julius Caesar". Also in inscriptions,
Gaius Iulius Gaii Filius Gaii Nepos Caesar, in English, "Gaius Julius Caesar, son of Gaius, grandson of Gaius". or
Gaius Julius Caesar ( in Classical
Latin; conventionally in
English), July 13, 100 BCThere is some dispute over the date of Caesar's birth. The day is sometimes stated to be be July 12, when his feast-day was celebrated after deification, but this was because his true birthday clashed with the
Ludi Apollinares. Some scholars, based on the dates he held certain magistracies, have made a case for 101 or 102 BC as the year of his birth, but scholarly consensus favours 100 BC. Goldsworthy, 30 – March 15, 44 BC,After Caesar's death the leap years were not inserted according to his intent and there is uncertainty about when leap years were observed between 45 BC and AD 4 inclusive; the dates in this article between 45 BC and AD 4 inclusive are those observed in Rome and there is an uncertainty of about a day as to where those dates would be on the
proleptic Julian calendar. See Blackburn, B and Holford-Strevens, L. (1999 corrected 2003).
The Oxford Companion to the Year. Oxford University Press. p. 671.) was a
Roman military and
political leader. He played a critical role in the transformation of the
Roman Republic into the
Roman Empire.
A politician of the
populares tradition, he formed an unofficial
triumvirate with
Marcus Licinius Crassus and
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus which dominated Roman politics for several years, opposed in the
Roman Senate by
optimates like
Marcus Porcius Cato and
Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus. His conquest of
Gaul extended the Roman world to the
North Sea, and he also conducted the first
Roman invasion of Britain in 55 BC. The collapse of the triumvirate, however, led to a stand-off with Pompey and the
Senate. Leading his legions across the
Rubicon, Caesar began a
civil war in 49 BC from which he became the undisputed master of the Roman world.
After assuming control of government, he began extensive reforms of Roman society and government. He was proclaimed "
dictator in perpetuity" (
dictator perpetuo), and heavily centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic. A group of senators, led by Caesar's former friend
Marcus Junius Brutus, assassinated the dictator on the
Ides of March (March 15) in 44 BC, hoping to restore the normal running of the Republic. However, the result was another
Roman civil war, which ultimately led to the establishment of a permanent
autocracy by Caesar's adopted heir,
Gaius Octavianus. In 42 BC, two years after his assassination, the Senate officially sanctified Caesar as one of the
Roman deities.
Much of Caesar's life is known from his own
Commentaries (
Commentarii) on his military campaigns, and other contemporary sources such as the letters and speeches of his political rival
Cicero, the historical writings of
Sallust, and the poetry of
Catullus. Many more details of his life are recorded by later historians, such as
Appian,
Suetonius,
Plutarch,
Cassius Dio and
Strabo.
Early life
Caesar was born into a
patrician family, the
gens Julia, which claimed descent from
Iulus, son of the legendary
Trojan prince
Aeneas, supposedly the son of the goddess
Venus. See also:
Suetonius,
Lives of the Twelve Caesars:
Julius 6;
Velleius Paterculus,
Roman History 2.41;
Virgil,
Aeneid The
cognomen "Caesar" originated, according to
Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was born by
caesarean section (from the Latin verb to cut,
caedere,
caes-).
Pliny the Elder,
Natural History 7.7. The misconception that Julius Caesar himself was born by Caesarian section dates back at least to the 10th century (
Suda kappa 1199). Julius wasn't the first to bear the name, and in his time the procedure was only performed on dead women, while Caesar's mother,
Aurelia, lived long after he was born. The
Historia Augusta suggests three
alternative explanations: that the first Caesar had a thick head of hair (Latin
caesaries); that he had bright grey eyes (Latin
oculis caesiis); or that he killed an elephant (
caesai in Moorish) in battle.
Historia Augusta:
Aelius 2. Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favoured this interpretation of his name.
Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential, having produced only three
consuls. Caesar's father, also called
Gaius Julius Caesar, reached the rank of
praetor, the second highest of the Republic's elected magistracies, and governed the province of
Asia, perhaps through the influence of his prominent brother-in-law
Gaius Marius.Suetonius,
Julius 1;
Plutarch,
Caesar 1,
Marius 6; Pliny the Elder,
Natural History 7.54;
Inscriptiones Italiae, 13.3.51-52 His mother,
Aurelia Cotta, came from an influential family which had produced several consuls.
Marcus Antonius Gnipho, an orator and grammarian of
Gaulish origin, was employed as Caesar's tutor.Suetonius,
Lives of Eminent Grammarians Caesar had two sisters, both called
Julia. Little else is recorded of Caesar's childhood.
Suetonius and
Plutarch's biographies of him both begin abruptly in Caesar's teens; the opening paragraphs of both appear to be lost.Plutarch,
Caesar 1; Suetonius,
Julius 1
Caesar's formative years were a time of turmoil. The
Social War was fought from 91 to 88 BC between Rome and her Italian allies over the issue of
Roman citizenship, while
Mithridates of
Pontus threatened Rome's eastern provinces. Domestically, Roman politics was divided between politicians known as
optimates and
populares, neither of which had a common agenda and so cannot be considered a political party or even a faction. The
optimates were those politicians who pursued their agendas through traditional, constitutional routes in the
Senate; the
populares those who preferred to bypass traditional procedure and pursue their agendas by appealing directly to the electorate. Caesar's uncle Marius was a
popularis, Marius' protégé
Lucius Cornelius Sulla was an
optimas, and in Caesar's youth their rivalry led to civil war.
Both Marius and Sulla distinguished themselves in the Social War, and both wanted command of the war against Mithridates, which was initially given to Sulla; but when Sulla left the city to take command of his army, a
tribune passed a law transferring the appointment to Marius. Sulla responded by marching on Rome, reclaiming his command and forcing Marius into exile, but when he left on campaign Marius returned at the head of a makeshift army. He and his ally
Lucius Cornelius Cinna seized the city and declared Sulla a public enemy, and Marius's troops took violent revenge on Sulla's supporters. Marius died early in 86 BC, but his followers remained in power.
Appian,
Civil Wars 1.34-75; Plutarch,
Marius 32-46,
Sulla 6-10; Velleius Paterculus,
Roman History 2.15-20; Eutropius 5; Florus, Epitome of Roman History'' ,
In 85 BC Caesar's father died suddenly while putting on his shoes one morning, without any apparent cause,Suetonius,
Julius 1; Pliny the Elder,
Natural History 7.54 and at sixteen, Caesar was the head of the family. The following year he was nominated to be the new
Flamen Dialis, high priest of
Jupiter, as
Merula, the previous incumbent, had died in Marius's purges.Velleius Paterculus,
Roman History 2.22; Florus,
Epitome of Roman History Since the holder of that position not only had to be a patrician but also be married to a patrician, he broke off his engagement to Cossutia, a girl of wealthy
equestrian family he had been betrothed to since boyhood, and married Cinna's daughter
Cornelia.Suetonius,
Julius 1; Plutarch,
Caesar 1; Velleius Paterculus,
Roman History 2.41
Then, having brought Mithridates to terms, Sulla returned to finish the civil war against Marius' followers. After a campaign throughout Italy he seized Rome at the
Battle of the Colline Gate in November 82 BC and had himself appointed to the revived office of
dictator; but whereas a dictator was traditionally appointed for six months at a time, Sulla's appointment had no term limit. Statues of Marius were destroyed and Marius' body was exhumed and thrown in the Tiber. Cinna was already dead, killed by his own soldiers in a mutiny.Appian,
Civil Wars 1.76-102; Plutarch,
Sulla 24-33; Velleius Paterculus,
Roman History 2.23-28; Eutropius,
Abridgement of Roman History 5; Florus,
Epitome of Roman History Sulla's
proscriptions saw hundreds of his political enemies killed or exiled. Caesar, as the nephew of Marius and son-in-law of Cinna, was targeted. He was stripped of his inheritance, his wife's dowry and his priesthood, but he refused to divorce Cornelia and was forced to go into hiding. The threat against him was lifted by the intervention of his mother's family, which included supporters of Sulla, and the
Vestal Virgins. Sulla gave in reluctantly, and is said to have declared that he saw many a Marius in Caesar.
Early career
Rather than returning to Rome, Caesar joined the army, serving under
Marcus Minucius Thermus in
Asia and
Servilius Isauricus in
Cilicia. He served with distinction, winning the
Civic Crown for his part in the siege of
Mytilene. On a mission to
Bithynia to secure the assistance of King
Nicomedes's fleet, he spent so long at his court that rumours of an affair with the king arose, which would persist for the rest of his life.Suetonius,
Julius 2-3; Plutarch,
Caesar 2-3;
Cassius Dio,
Roman History 43.20 Ironically, the loss of his priesthood had allowed him to pursue a military career: the
Flamen Dialis was not permitted to touch a horse, sleep three nights outside his own bed or one night outside Rome, or look upon an army.William Smith,
A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities:
Flamen
In 80 BC, after two years in office,
Sulla resigned his dictatorship, re-established consular government and, after serving as consul, retired to private life.Appian.
Civil Wars 1.103 Caesar later ridiculed Sulla's relinquishing of the dictatorship—"Sulla did not know his political ABC's".Suetonius,
Julius 77. He died two years later in 78 BC and was accorded a state funeral.Plutarch,
Sulla 36-38 Hearing of Sulla's death, Caesar felt safe enough to return to Rome. Lacking means since his inheritance was confiscated, he acquired a modest house in the
Subura, a lower class neighbourhood of Rome.Suetonius,
Julius 46 His return coincided with an attempted anti-Sullan coup by
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, but Caesar, lacking confidence in Lepidus's leadership, did not participate.Suetonius,
Julius 3; Appian,
Civil Wars 1.107 Instead he turned to legal advocacy. He became known for his exceptional oratory, accompanied by impassioned gestures and a high-pitched voice, and ruthless prosecution of former governors notorious for
extortion and
corruption. Even
Cicero praised him: "Come now, what orator would you rank above him...?"Suetonius,
Julius 55 Aiming at
rhetorical perfection, Caesar travelled to
Rhodes in 75 BC to study under
Apollonius Molon, who had previously taught Cicero.Suetonius,
Julius 4. Plutarch (
Caesar 3-4) reports the same events but follows a different chronology.
On the way across the
Aegean Sea,Again, according to Suetonius's chronology (
Julius 4). Plutarch (
Caesar 1.8-2) says this happened earlier, on his return from Nicomedes's court. Velleius Paterculus (
Roman History 2:41.3-42 says merely that it happened when he was a young man. Caesar was kidnapped by
Cilician
pirates and held prisoner in the
Dodecanese islet of
Pharmacusa.Plutarch,
Caesar 1-2 He maintained an attitude of superiority throughout his captivity. When the pirates thought to demand a ransom of twenty
talents of silver, he insisted they ask for fifty.Freeman, 39 After the ransom was paid, Caesar raised a fleet, pursued and captured the pirates, and imprisoned them in
Pergamon.
Marcus Junctus, the governor of
Asia, refused to execute them as Caesar demanded, preferring to sell them as slaves,Freeman, 39-40 but Caesar returned to the coast and had them crucified on his own authority, as he had promised to when in captivityFreeman, 40—a promise the pirates had taken as a joke. He then proceeded to Rhodes, but was soon called back into military action in Asia, raising a band of
auxiliaries to repel an incursion from Pontus.
On his return to Rome he was elected military
tribune, a first step on the
cursus honorum of Roman politics. The
war against
Spartacus took place around this time (73 - 71 BC), but it is not recorded what role, if any, Caesar played in it. He was elected
quaestor for 69 BC,Freeman, 51 and during that year he delivered the funeral oration for his aunt Julia, widow of Marius, and included images of Marius, unseen since the days of Sulla, in the funeral procession. His own wife Cornelia also died that year.Freeman, 52 After her funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC, Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in
Hispania under Antistius Vetus.Goldsworthy, 100 While there he is said to have encountered a statue of
Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little. He requested, and was granted, an early discharge from his duties, and returned to Roman politics. On his return in 67 BC,Goldsworthy, 101 he married
Pompeia, a granddaughter of Sulla.Suetonius,
Julius 5-8; Plutarch,
Caesar 5; Velleius Paterculus,
Roman History 2.43 He was elected
aedile and restored the trophies of Marius's victories; a controversial move given the Sullan regime was still in place. He also brought prosecutions against men who had benefited from Sulla's proscriptions, and spent a great deal of borrowed money on public works and games, outshining his colleague
Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus. He was also suspected of involvement in two abortive coup attempts.Suetonius,
Julius 9-11; Plutarch,
Caesar 5.6-6; Cassius Dio,
Roman History 37.8,
10
Coming to prominence
63 BC was an eventful year for Caesar. He persuaded a tribune,
Titus Labienus, to prosecute the optimate senator
Gaius Rabirius for the political murder, 37 years previously, of the tribune
Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, and had himself appointed as one of the two judges to try the case. Rabirius was defended by both
Cicero and
Quintus Hortensius, but was convicted of
perduellio (treason). While he was exercising his right of appeal to the people, the praetor
Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer adjourned the assembly by taking down the military flag from the Janiculum hill. Labienus could have resumed the prosecution at a later session, but did not do so: Caesar's point had been made, and the matter was allowed to drop.
Cicero,
For Gaius Rabirius; Cassius Dio,
Roman History 26-28 Labienus would remain an important ally of Caesar over the next decade.
The same year, Caesar ran for election to the post of
Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the Roman state religion, after the death of
Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius, who had been appointed to the post by Sulla. He ran against two powerful
optimates, the former consuls
Quintus Lutatius Catulus and
Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus. There were accusations of bribery by all sides. Caesar is said to have told his mother on the morning of the election that he would return as Pontifex Maximus or not at all, expecting to be forced into exile by the enormous debts he had run up to fund his campaign. In any event he won comfortably, despite his opponents' greater experience and standing, possibly because the two older men split their votes.Velleius Paterculus,
Roman History 2.43; Plutarch,
Caesar 7; Suetonius,
Julius 13 The post came with an official residence on the
Via Sacra.
When Cicero, who was consul that year, exposed
Catiline's conspiracy to seize control of the republic, Catulus and others accused Caesar of involvement in the plot.
Sallust,
Catiline War 49 Caesar, who had been elected praetor for the following year, took part in the debate in the Senate on how to deal with the conspirators. During the debate, Caesar was passed a note.
Marcus Porcius Cato, who would become his most implacable political opponent, accused him of corresponding with the conspirators, and demanded that the message be read aloud. Caesar passed him the note, which, embarrassingly, turned out to be a love letter from Cato's half-sister
Servilia. Caesar argued persuasively against the death penalty for the conspirators, proposing life imprisonment instead, but a speech by Cato proved decisive, and the conspirators were executed.Cicero,
Against Catiline 4.7-9; Sallust,
Catiline War 50-55; Plutarch,
Caesar 7.5-8.3,
Cicero 20-21,
Cato the Younger 22-24; Suetonius,
Julius 14 The following year a commission was set up to investigate the conspiracy, and Caesar was again accused of complicity. On Cicero's evidence that he had reported what he knew of the plot voluntarily, however, he was cleared, and one of his accusers, and also one of the commissioners, were sent to prison.Suetonius,
Julius 17
While praetor in 62 BC, Caesar supported Metellus Celer, now tribune, in proposing controversial legislation, and the pair were so obstinate they were suspended from office by the Senate. Caesar attempted to continue to perform his duties, only giving way when violence was threatened. The Senate was persuaded to reinstate him after he quelled public demonstrations in his favour.Suetonius,
Julius 16
That year the festival of the
Bona Dea ("good goddess") was held at Caesar's house. No men were permitted to attend, but a young patrician named
Publius Clodius Pulcher managed to gain admittance disguised as a woman, apparently for the purpose of seducing Caesar's wife
Pompeia. He was caught and prosecuted for sacrilege. Caesar gave no evidence against Clodius at his trial, careful not to offend one of the most powerful patrician families of Rome, and Clodius was acquitted after rampant bribery and intimidation. Nevertheless, Caesar divorced Pompeia, saying that "my wife ought not even to be under suspicion."Cicero,
Letters to Atticus , , ; Plutarch,
Caesar 9-10; Cassius Dio,
Roman History 37.45
After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to govern
Hispania Ulterior (Outer
Iberia), but he was still in considerable debt and needed to satisfy his creditors before he could leave. He turned to
Marcus Licinius Crassus, one of Rome's richest men. In return for political support in his opposition to the interests of
Pompey, Crassus paid some of Caesar's debts and acted as guarantor for others. Even so, to avoid becoming a private citizen and open to prosecution for his debts, Caesar left for his province before his praetorship had ended. In Hispania he conquered the
Callaici and
Lusitani, being hailed as
imperator by his troops, reformed the law regarding debts, and completed his governorship in high esteem.Plutarch,
Caesar 11-12; Suetonius,
Julius 18.1
Being hailed as
imperator entitled Caesar to a
triumph. However, he also wanted to stand for
consul, the most senior magistracy in the republic. If he were to celebrate a triumph, he would have to remain a soldier and stay outside the city until the ceremony, but to stand for election he would need to lay down his command and enter Rome as a private citizen. He could not do both in the time available. He asked the senate for permission to stand
in absentia, but Cato blocked the proposal. Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship.Plutarch,
Julius 13; Suetonius,
Julius 18.2
First consulship and triumvirate
Three candidates stood for the consulship: Caesar, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, who had been aedile with Caesar several years earlier, and
Lucius Lucceius. The election was dirty. Caesar canvassed Cicero for support, and made an alliance with the wealthy Lucceius, but the establishment threw its financial weight behind the conservative Bibulus, and even Cato, with his reputation for incorruptibility, is said to have resorted to bribery in his favour. Caesar and Bibulus were elected as consuls for 59 BC.Plutarch,
Caesar 13-14; Suetonius
19
Caesar was already in
Crassus's political debt, but he also made overtures to
Pompey, who was unsuccessfully fighting the Senate for ratification of his eastern settlements and farmland for his veterans. Pompey and Crassus had been at odds since they were consuls together in 70 BC, and Caesar knew if he allied himself with one he would lose the support of the other, so he endeavoured to reconcile them. Between the three of them, they had enough money and political influence to control public business. This informal alliance, known as the
First Triumvirate (rule of three men), was cemented by the marriage of Pompey to Caesar's daughter
Julia.Cicero,
Letters to Atticus , , ; Velleius Paterculus,
Roman History 2.44; Plutarch,
Caesar 13-14,
Pompey 47,
Crassus 14; Suetonius,
Julius 19.2; Cassius Dio,
Roman History 37.54-58 Caesar also married again, this time
Calpurnia, daughter of
Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, who was elected to the consulship for the following year.Suetonius,
Julius 21
Caesar proposed a law for the redistribution of public lands to the poor, a proposal supported by Pompey, by force of arms if need be, and by Crassus, making the triumvirate public. Pompey filled the city with soldiers, and the triumvirate's opponents were intimidated. Bibulus attempted to declare the omens unfavourable and thus void the new law, but was driven from the forum by Caesar's armed supporters. His
lictors had their
fasces broken, two tribunes accompanying him were wounded, and Bibulus himself had a bucket of excrement thrown over him. In fear of his life, he retired to his house for the rest of the year, issuing occasional proclamations of bad omens. These attempts to obstruct Caesar's legislation proved ineffective. Roman satirists ever after referred to the year as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar".Cicero,
Letters to Atticus , , , , , , ; Velleius Paterculus,
Roman History 44.4; Plutarch,
Caesar 14,
Pompey 47-48,
Cato the Younger 32-33; Cassius Dio,
Roman History 38.1-8
When Caesar and Bibulus were first elected, the aristocracy tried to limit Caesar's future power by allotting the woods and pastures of Italy, rather than governorship of a province, as their proconsular duties after their year of office was over.Suetonius,
Julius 19.2 With the help of Piso and Pompey, Caesar later had this overturned, and was instead appointed to govern
Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy) and
Illyricum (the western Balkans), with
Transalpine Gaul (southern France) later added, giving him command of four legions. His term of office, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the usual one.Velleius Paterculus,
Roman History 2:44.4; Plutarch,
Caesar 14.10,
Crassus 14.3,
Pompey 48,
Cato the Younger 33.3; Suetonius,
Julius 22; Cassius Dio,
Roman History 38:8.5 When his consulship ended, Caesar narrowly avoided prosecution for the irregularities of his year in office, and quickly left for his province.Suetonius,
Julius 23
Conquest of Gaul
Caesar was still deeply in debt, and there was money to be made as a provincial governor, whether by extortionSee Cicero's speeches for an example of a former provincial governor successfully prosecuted for illegally enriching himself at his province's expense. or by military adventurism. Caesar had four legions under his command, two of his provinces,
Illyricum and
Gallia Narbonensis, bordered on unconquered territory, and independent Gaul was known to be unstable. Rome's allies the
Aedui had been defeated by their Gallic rivals, with the help of a contingent of
Germanic Suebi under
Ariovistus, who had settled in conquered Aeduan land, and the
Helvetii were mobilising for a mass migration, which the Romans feared had warlike intent. Caesar raised two new legions and defeated first the Helvetii, then Ariovistus, and left his army in winter quarters in the territory of the Sequani, signaling that his interest in the lands outside Gallia Narbonensis would not be temporary.Cicero,
Letters to Atticus ; Julius Caesar,
Commentaries on the Gallic War ; Appian,
Gallic Wars Epit. 3; Cassius Dio,
Roman History 38.31-50
He began his second year with double the military strength he had begun with, having raised another two legions in Cisalpine Gaul during the winter. The legality of this was dubious, as the Cisalpine Gauls were not Roman citizens. In response to Caesar's activities the previous year, the
Belgic tribes of north-eastern Gaul had begun to arm themselves. Caesar treated this as an aggressive move, and, after an inconclusive engagement against a united Belgic army, conquered the tribes piecemeal. Meanwhile, one legion, commanded by Crassus' son Publius, began the conquest of the tribes of the
Armorican peninsula.Julius Caesar,
Commentaries on the Gallic War ; Appian,
Gallic Wars Epit. 4; Cassius Dio,
Roman History 39.1-5
During the spring of 56 BC the Triumvirate held a conference at Luca (modern
Lucca) in Cisalpine Gaul. Rome was in turmoil, and
Clodius' populist campaigns had been undermining relations between Crassus and Pompey. The meeting renewed the Triumvirate and extended Caesar's proconsulship for another five years. Crassus and Pompey would be consuls again, with similarly long-term proconsulships to follow: Syria for Crassus, the Hispanian provinces for Pompey.Cicero,
Letters to his brother Quintus 2.3; Suetonius,
Julius 24; Plutarch,
Caesar 21,
Crassus 14-15,
Pompey 51 The conquest of Armorica was completed when Caesar defeated the
Veneti in a naval battle, while young Crassus conquered the
Aquitani of the south-west. By the end of campaigning in 56 BC only the
Morini and
Menapii of the coastal Low Countries still held out.Julius Caesar,
Commentaries on the Gallic War ; Cassius Dio,
Roman History 39.40-46
In 55 BC Caesar repelled an incursion into Gaul by the Germanic
Usipetes and
Tencteri, and followed it up by building a bridge across the Rhine and making a show of force in Germanic territory, before returning and dismantling the bridge. Late that summer, having subdued the Morini and Menapii, he crossed to Britain, claiming that the Britons had aided the Veneti against him the previous year. His intelligence was poor, and although he gained a beachhead on the Kent coast he was unable to advance further, and returned to Gaul for the winter.Julius Caesar,
Commentaries on the Gallic War ; Appian,
Gallic Wars Epit. 4; Cassius Dio,
Roman History 47-53 He returned the following year, better prepared and with a larger force, and achieved more. He advanced inland, establishing
Mandubracius of the
Trinovantes as a friendly king and bringing his rival,
Cassivellaunus, to terms. But poor harvests led to widespread revolt in Gaul, led by
Ambiorix of the
Eburones, forcing Caesar to campaign through the winter and into the following year. With the defeat of Ambiorix, Caesar believed Gaul was now pacified.Cicero,
Letters to friends , , , , ;
Letters to his brother Quintus , , ;
Letters to Atticus , , ; Julius Caesar,
Commentaries on the Gallic War ; Cassius Dio,
Roman History 40.1-11
While Caesar was in Britain his daughter Julia, Pompey's wife, had died in childbirth. Caesar tried to resecure Pompey's support by offering him his great-niece
Octavia in marriage, alienating Octavia's husband
Gaius Marcellus, but Pompey declined. In 53 BC Crassus was killed leading a failed
invasion of
Parthia. Rome was on the edge of violence. Pompey was appointed sole consul as an emergency measure, and married
Cornelia, daughter of Caesar's political opponent Quintus Metellus Scipio, whom he invited to become his consular colleague once order was restored. The Triumvirate was dead.Suetonius,
Julius link; Plutarch,
Caesar 23.5,
Pompey 53-55,
Crassus 16-33; Velleius Paterculus,
Roman History 46-47
In 52 BC another, larger revolt erupted in Gaul, led by
Vercingetorix of the
Arverni. Vercingetorix managed to unite the Gallic tribes and proved an astute commander, defeating Caesar in several engagements including the
Battle of Gergovia, but Caesar's elaborate siege-works at the
Battle of Alesia finally forced his surrender.Julius Caesar,
Commentaries on the Gallic War ; Cassius Dio,
Roman History 40.33-42 Despite scattered outbreaks of
warfare the following year,
Aulus Hirtius,
Commentaries on the Gallic War Gaul was effectively conquered.
Titus Labienus was Caesar's most senior
legate during his Gallic campaigns, having the status of
propraetor.Julius Caesar,
Commentaries on the Gallic War Other prominent men who served under him included his relative
Lucius Julius Caesar,Julius Caesar,
Commentaries on the Gallic War Crassus' sons MarcusJulius Caesar,
Commentaries on the Gallic War and Publius,Julius Caesar,
Commentaries on the Gallic War Cicero's brother
Quintus,Julius Caesar,
Commentaries on the Gallic War &f.
Decimus Brutus,Julius Caesar,
Commentaries on the Gallic War and
Mark Antony.Julius Caesar,
Commentaries on the Gallic War &f.
Plutarch claimed that the army had fought against three million men in the course of the
Gallic Wars, of whom 1 million died, and another million were
enslaved. 300 tribes were subjugated and 800 cities were destroyed. Almost the entire population of the city of
Avaricum (Bourges) (40,000 in all) was slaughtered. Julius Caesar reports that 368,000 of the
Helvetii left home, of whom 92,000 could bear arms, and only 110,000 returned after the campaign. However, in view of the difficulty of finding accurate counts in the first place, Caesar's propagandistic purposes, and the common gross exaggeration of numbers in ancient texts, the totals of enemy combatants in particular are likely to be far too high. Furger-Gunti considers an army of more than 60,000 fighting Helvetii extremely unlikely in the view of the tactics described, and assumes the actual numbers to have been around 40,000 warriors out of a total of 160,000 emigrants.Furger-Gunti, 102. Delbrück suggests an even lower number of 100,000 people, out of which only 16,000 were fighters, which would make the Celtic force about half the size of the Roman body of ca. 30,000 men.H. Delbrück
Geschichte der Kriegskunst im Rahmen der politischen Geschichte, Vol. 1, 1900, pp. 428 and 459f.
Military career
Historians place the generalship of Caesar as one of the greatest military strategists and tacticians who ever lived, along with
Alexander the Great,
Sun Tzu,
Hannibal,
Genghis Khan, and
Napoleon Bonaparte. Caesar suffered occasional tactical defeats, such as Battle of Gergovia during the Gallic War and the Battle of Dyrrhachium during the Civil War. However, his tactical brilliance was highlighted by such feats as his circumvallation of Alesia during the Gallic War, the rout of Pompey's numerically superior forces at
Pharsalus during the Civil War, and the complete destruction of Pharnaces' army at Battle of Zela.
Caesar's successful campaigning in any terrain and under all weather conditions owes much to the strict but fair discipline of his legionaries, whose admiration and devotion to him were proverbial due to his promotion of those of skill over those of nobility. Caesar's infantry and cavalry were first rate, and he made heavy use of formidable Roman artillery and his army's superlative engineering abilities. There was also the legendary speed with which he manoeuvred his troops; Caesar's army sometimes marched as many as a day. His
Commentaries on the Gallic Wars describe how, during the siege of one Gallic city built on a very steep and high plateau, his engineers tunnelled through solid rock, found the source of the spring from which the town was drawing its water supply, and diverted it to the use of the army. The town, cut off from their water supply, capitulated at once. Caesar also used a cipher system to communicate with his generals which has now come to be known as the
Caesar cipher.
Civil war
In 50 BC, the Senate, led by
Pompey, ordered Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome because his term as Proconsul had finished.Suetonius,
Julius 28 Moreover, the Senate forbade Caesar to stand for a second consulship
in absentia. Caesar thought he would be prosecuted and politically marginalised if he entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by a Consul or without the power of his army. Pompey accused Caesar of insubordination and treason. On January 10, 49 BC Caesar crossed the
Rubicon river (the frontier boundary of Italy) with only
one legion and ignited
civil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Plutarch reports that Caesar quoted the Athenian playwright
Menander in Greek, saying
ἀνερρίφθω κύβος (let the die be thrown).Plutarch,
Caesar 60.2 Suetonius gives the Latin approximation
alea iacta est (the die is thrown).Suetonius,
Julius 32
The Optimates, including Metellus Scipio and Cato the Younger, fled to the south, having little confidence in the newly raised troops especially since so many cities in northern Italy had voluntarily surrendered. An attempted stand by a consulate legion in Samarium resulted in the consul being handed over by the defenders and the
legion surrendering without significant fighting. Despite greatly outnumbering Caesar, who only had his
Thirteenth Legion with him, Pompey had no intention of fighting. Caesar pursued Pompey to
Brindisium, hoping to capture Pompey before the trapped Senate and their legions could escape.Plutarch,
Caesar 35.2 Pompey managed to elude him, sailing out of the harbour before Caesar could break the barricades.
Lacking a
naval force since Pompey had already scoured the coasts of all ships for evacuation of his forces, Caesar decided to head for Hispania saying "I set forth to fight an army without a leader, so as later to fight a leader without an army." Leaving
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus as prefect of Rome, and the rest of Italy under
Mark Antony as tribune, Caesar made an astonishing 27-day route-march to
Hispania, rejoining two of his Gallic legions, where he defeated Pompey's lieutenants. He then returned east, to challenge Pompey in
Greece where on July 10, 48 BC at
Dyrrhachium Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat when the line of fortification was broken. He decisively defeated Pompey, despite Pompey's numerical advantage (nearly twice the number of infantry and considerably more cavalry), at
Pharsalus in an exceedingly short engagement in 48 BC.Plutarch,
Caesar 42-45
In Rome, Caesar was appointed
dictator,Plutarch,
Caesar 37.2 with
Mark Antony as his
Master of the Horse; Caesar resigned this dictatorate after 11 days and was elected to a second term as consul with
Publius Servilius Vatia as his colleague.
He pursued Pompey to
Alexandria, where Pompey was murdered by a former Roman officer serving in the court of
King Ptolemy XIII.Plutarch,
Pompey 77-79 Caesar then became involved with the Alexandrine civil war between Ptolemy and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, the
Pharaoh Cleopatra VII. Perhaps as a result of Ptolemy's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra; he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head,Plutarch,
Pompey 80.5 which was offered to him by Ptolemy's chamberlain
Pothinus as a gift. In any event, Caesar defeated the Ptolemaic forces in 47 BC in the
Battle of the Nile and installed Cleopatra as ruler, with whom he is suspected of fathering a son,
Caesarion. Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory of the Alexandrine civil war with a triumphant procession on the Nile in the spring of 47 B.C. The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, introducing Caesar to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharaohs.
Caesar and Cleopatra never married: they could not do so under Roman Law. The institution of marriage was only recognised between two Roman citizens; Cleopatra was Queen of Egypt. In Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery, and Caesar is believed to have continued his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage, which lasted 14 years. Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the
Tiber.
After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, Caesar went to the
Middle East, where he annihilated King
Pharnaces II of Pontus in the
Battle of Zela; his victory was so swift and complete that he mocked Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies.Suetonius,
Julius 35.2 Thence, he proceeded to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters. He quickly gained a significant victory at
Thapsus in 46 BC over the forces of Metellus Scipio (who died in the battle) and Cato the Younger (who committed suicide).Plutarch,
Caesar 52-54 Nevertheless, Pompey's sons
Gnaeus Pompeius and
Sextus Pompeius, together with
Titus Labienus, Caesar's former propraetorian legate (
legatus propraetore) and second in command in the Gallic War, escaped to Hispania. Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the
Battle of Munda in March 45 BC.Plutarch,
Caesar 56 During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC (with
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus) and 45 BC (without colleague).
Aftermath of the civil war
While he was still campaigning in
Hispania, the Senate began bestowing honours on Caesar
in absentia. Caesar had not proscribed his enemies, instead pardoning almost all, and there was no serious public opposition to him.
Great games and celebrations were held on April 21 to honour Caesar’s victory at Munda. Plutarch writes that many Romans found the triumph held following Caesar's victory to be in poor taste, as those defeated in the civil war had not been foreigners, but instead fellow Romans.Plutarch,
Caesar 56.7-56.8
On Caesar's return to Italy in September 45 BC, he filed his will, naming his grand-nephew
Gaius Octavius (Octavian) as the heir to everything, including his title. Caesar also wrote that if Octavian died before Caesar did,
Marcus Junius Brutus would be the next heir in succession.
Caesar tightly regulated the purchase of state-subsidised grain and reduced the number of recipients to a fixed number, all of whom were entered into a special register. From 47-44 he made plans for the distribution of land to about 15,000 of his veterans.
In 63 BC Caesar had been elected
Pontifex Maximus, and one of his roles as such was settling the calendar. A complete overhaul of the old
Roman calendar proved to be one of his most long lasting and influential reforms. In 46 BC, Caesar established a 365-day year with a leap year every fourth year.Suetonius,
Julius 40 (This
Julian calendar was subsequently modified by
Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 into the modern
Gregorian calendar.) As a result of this reform, a certain Roman year (mostly equivalent to 46 BC in the modern calendar) was made 445 days long, to bring the calendar into line with the seasons. The month of July is named after Julius in his honour.Suetonius,
Julius 76
The
Forum of Caesar, with its
Temple of Venus Genetrix, was built among many other public works.
All of the pomp, circumstance, and public taxpayers' money being spent incensed certain members of the Roman Senate. One of these was Caesar's closest friend,
Marcus Junius Brutus.
Health
Based on remarks by Plutarch,Plutarch,
Caesar 17, 45, 60; see also Suetonius,
Julius 45. Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered from
epilepsy. Modern scholarship is "sharply divided" on the subject, and it is more certain that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s.Ronald T. Ridley, "The Dictator's Mistake: Caesar's Escape from Sulla,"
Historia 49 (2000), pp. 225–226, citing doubters of epilepsy: F. Kanngiesser, "Notes on the Pathology of the Julian Dynasty,"
Glasgow Medical Journal 77 (1912) 428-432; T. Cawthorne, "Julius Caesar and the Falling Sickness,”
Proceedings of Royal Society of Medicine 51 (1957) 27-30, who prefers
Ménière's disease; and O. Temkin,
The Falling Sickness: A History of Epilepsy from the Greeks to the Beginnings of Modern Neurology (Baltimore 1971), p 162.
Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have had
absence seizures in his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer
Suetonius who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of
hypoglycemia, which can cause epileptic-like seizures.
Assassination
Assassination plot
Plutarch records that at one point, Caesar informed the Senate that his honours were more in need of reduction than augmentation, but withdrew this position so as not to appear ungrateful. He was given the title
Pater Patriae ("Father of the Fatherland").Alternate title:
Parens patriae He was appointed dictator a third time, and then nominated for nine consecutive one-year terms as dictator, effectually making him dictator for ten years. He was also given censorial authority as
praefectus morum (prefect of morals) for three years.
The Senate named Caesar
dictator perpetuo ("dictator in perpetuity"). Roman mints printed a
denarius coin with this title and his profile on one side, and with an image of the goddess
Ceres and Caesar's title of
Augur Pontifex Maximus on the reverse. While printing the title of dictator was significant, Caesar's image was not, as it was customary to print consuls and other public officials on coins during the Republic.
According to
Cassius Dio, a senatorial delegation went to inform Caesar of new honours they had bestowed upon him in 44 BC. Caesar received them while sitting in the
Temple of Venus Genetrix, rather than rising to meet them. According to Dio, this was a chief excuse for the offended senators to plot his assassination. He wrote that a few of Caesar's supporters blamed his failure to rise on a sudden attack of diarrhoea, but his enemies discounted this in observing that he had walked home unaided.
Suetonius wrote that Caesar failed to rise in the temple either because he was restrained by Cornelius Balbus or that he balked at the suggestion he should rise.Suetonius,
Julius 78 Suetonius also gave the account of a crowd assembled to greet Caesar upon his return to Rome. A member of the crowd placed a
laurel wreath on the statue of Caesar on the
Rostra. The
tribunes
Gaius Epidius Marcellus and
Lucius Caesetius Flavius ordered that the wreath be removed as it was a symbol of Jupiter and royalty. Caesar had the tribunes censored from office through his official powers.Plutarch,
Caesar 61 According to Suetonius, he was unable to disassociate himself with the title of monarch from this point forward.Suetonius,
Julius 79.2 His biographer also gives the story that a crowd shouted to him "
rex", the Latin word for king. Caesar replied, "I am Caesar, not Rex", a pun on the Roman name coming from the title. Also, at the
festival of the
Lupercalia, while he gave a speech from the Rostra,
Mark Antony, who had been elected co-consul with Caesar, attempted to place a crown on his head several times. Caesar put it aside to be used as a sacrifice to
Jupiter Opitimus Maximus.
Plutarch and Suetonius are similar in their depiction of these events, but Dio combines the stories writing that the tribunes arrested the citizens who placed diadems or wreaths on statues of Caesar. He then places the crowd shouting
"rex" on the Alban Hill with the tribunes arresting a member of this crowd as well. The plebeian protested that he was unable to speak his mind freely. Caesar then brought the tribunes before the senate and put the matter to a vote, thereafter removing them from office and erasing their names from the records.
Suetonius adds that Lucius Cotta proposed to the Senate that Caesar should be granted the title of "king" for it was prophesied that only a king would conquer
Parthia.Suetonius,
Julius 79.3 Caesar intended to invade Parthia, a task which would later give considerable trouble to Mark Antony during the second triumvirate.
Brutus began to conspire against Caesar with his friend and brother-in-law
Cassius and other men, calling themselves the
Liberatores ("Liberators"). Many plans were discussed by the group, as documented by
Nicolaus of Damascus:
Nicolaus also writes that in the days leading up to the assassination, Caesar was told by doctors, friends, and even his wife, Calpurnia, not to attend the Senate on the Ides for various reasons, including medical concerns and troubling dreams had by Calpurnia:
--->
--->
--->
--->
--->
--->
--->
--->
;Note on Imperator "honor" and title. In the
Roman Republic,
imperator was the title assumed by certain military commanders. After an especially great victory, an army's troops in the field would proclaim their commander
imperator, an acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the
Senate for a
triumph. After being acclaimed
imperator, the victorious general had a right to use the title after his name until the time of his
triumph, where he would relinquish the title as well as his
imperium.